Assisting a cpr treatment

ABSTRACT

A system for assisting with a cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) treatment being administered to a patient. In one aspect, a system for assisting with a cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) treatment being administered to a patient includes a sensor for determining a parameter of the patient (e.g., indicative of a blood flow or pressure waveform), and one or more processors configured for receiving input from the sensor, determining, based on the input from the sensor, whether a rate of chest compressions administered in the CPR treatment should be changed, and providing an indication to a user that the rate of chest compressions should be changed.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.15/179,898, filed on Jun. 10, 2016, which claims the benefit of priorityto U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/175,086, filed on Jun. 12,2015, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This document relates to assisting a cardio-pulmonary resuscitation(CPR) treatment, including systems and techniques for optimizing theeffectiveness of CPR by changing the rate of chest compressions.

BACKGROUND

CPR is a treatment for patients experiencing cardiac arrest in whichchest compressions and ventilation is applied to the chest of a victim.According to American Heart Association Guidelines for CardiopulmonaryResuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care, it is recommended toperform CPR at a constant compression rate of 100 chest compressions perminute (cpm) and at a compression depth of about 4-5 cm. Commerciallyavailable CPR feedback devices, as well as mechanical chest compressiondevices, typically implement the AHA recommended protocols.

SUMMARY

In one aspect, a system for assisting with a cardiopulmonaryresuscitation (CPR) treatment being administered to a patient includes asensor for determining a parameter (e.g., indicative of a blood flow orpressure waveform) of the patient, and one or more processors configuredfor receiving input from the sensor, determining, based on the inputfrom the sensor, whether a rate of chest compressions administered inthe CPR treatment should be changed, and providing an indication to auser that the rate of chest compressions should be changed.

In another aspect, a system for assisting with a cardiopulmonaryresuscitation (CPR) treatment being administered to a patient includes atimer module configured to determine an amount of time elapsed sincechest compressions are commenced, and one or more processors configuredfor determining, based on the amount of time elapsed, whether a rate ofchest compressions administered in the CPR treatment should be changed,and providing feedback for a user of the system indicating that the rateof chest compressions should be changed.

In another aspect, a system for assisting with a cardiopulmonaryresuscitation (CPR) treatment being administered to a patient includinga sensor for measuring a parameter (e.g., indicative of a blood flow orpressure waveform) of the patient, a metronome to guide a user inapplying chest compressions at a first rate, a motion sensor configuredto measure rate of compressions exerted by the user on the patient, oneor more processors configured for receiving input from the sensor andthe motion sensor, determining, based on the input from the sensor,whether a rate of chest compressions administered in the CPR treatmentshould be changed, a user interface module, wherein the user interfacemodule is configured to provide feedback indicating that the rate ofchest compressions is to be changed, and providing a second rate toguide the user in applying chest compressions.

In a further aspect, a system for assisting with a cardiopulmonaryresuscitation (CPR) treatment being administered to a patient comprisesone of a timer module configured to determine an amount of time elapsedsince chest compressions are commenced or a sensor configured todetermine a blood flow or pressure feature or metric, a mechanical chestcompression device, a mechanical chest compression device controller,and one or more processors configured for instructing the mechanicalchest compression device controller to provide chest compressions at afirst rate, determining, based on the amount of time elapsed or thesensed parameter, whether a rate of chest compressions administered inthe CPR treatment should be changed, and providing a second rate ofchest compressions based on the time elapsed.

In other aspect, a method for assisting with a cardiopulmonaryresuscitation (CPR) treatment administered to a patient includesreceiving, by one or more processors, an input from a sensor measuring awaveform indicative of at least one of a blood flow, a pulse wavevelocity or a blood pressure of the patient, determining, by one or moreprocessors and based on the input from the sensor, that a rate of chestcompressions administered in the CPR treatment should be changed, andproviding, by one or more processors, a feedback indicating that therate of chest compressions should be changed.

The details of one or more implementations are set forth in theaccompanying drawings and the description below. Other features andadvantages will be apparent from the description, drawings, and claims.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of an example system for assistingwith CPR treatment.

FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of another example system forassisting with CPR treatment.

FIG. 3 is a flow chart of an example process for assisting with CPRtreatment.

FIG. 4 is a flow chart of another example process for assisting with CPRtreatment.

FIG. 5 is a plot of data obtained from porcine models administeredvarious compression rates during resuscitation.

FIGS. 6A-6E are plots of carotid flows obtained from porcine modelsadministered according to various compression rates duringresuscitation.

FIGS. 7A and 7B are plots of flows per minute and per compressionobtained from porcine models administered according to variouscompression rates during resuscitation.

FIG. 8 is a block diagram of an example computer system.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

A person who is attempting to use chest compressions to rescue a patientapplies a force to the patient's chest as part of the CPR treatment. Theperson (whom we sometimes call a rescuer, or user) sometimes uses adevice to assist with the CPR treatment. Among other functionality, thedevice can provide feedback to the rescuer about the rate at which therescuer should apply the chest compressions. Typically, the feedbackdevices, such as those available commercially today, provide feedback tothe rescuer based on the chest compression rate recommended by the AHA.However, it may be advantageous to provide an optimized rate (e.g., arate that is most likely to contribute to rescue the patient) over thecourse of the treatment. Thus, a feedback device can be configured toadjust the compression rate over the course of the CPR treatment. Theadjustment in compression rate can be based on the time since CPR wasstarted or based on a particular parameter. In various embodiments,blood flow or pressure features or metrics are used to adjust the rateof chest compressions. Examples of such features or metrics includevascular response, flow volume, flow velocity, blood pressure, etc. Theamount of time elapsed since the CPR treatment commenced may also beused to adjust the compression rate.

FIG. 1 illustrates an example patient monitoring configuration 100. Thepatient monitoring configuration 100 includes one or more sensors 101and 102 that can be attached to various locations on the body surface ofthe patient 104. The sensors 101 and 102 are electrically coupled to apatient monitoring device 106 which provides output 111 on a userinterface 110 based on input received from the sensors. The output caninclude directions to a user of the monitoring device 106 (e.g.,directions specifying a rate of chest compressions to administer to thepatient 104).

In some examples, the sensors 101 and 102 can include a sensor formeasuring a parameter indicative of a blood flow or pressure waveform ofthe patient 104 and a CPR sensor for determining the rate and/or depthof chest compressions. In some implementations, the blood flow orpressure waveform features or metrics can include a vascular parameter,such as a blood flow, a pulse wave velocity, a blood pressure, flowvelocity, etc. In some implementations, the sensor can be a tonometer, alaser Doppler blood flow sensor, an ultrasound Doppler blood flowsensor, a blood pressure sensor, and/or other sensor for measuring ablood flow or pressure waveform feature or metric. In someimplementations, the sensor(s) 102 used to determine and/or providefeedback relating to chest compression rate can include a motion sensor(e.g., accelerometer or magnetic flux motion sensor), which may beconfigured to analyze motion signals such as an accelerometer signalthat may be used to provide measures of compression depths andcompression rates exerted by the user of the system 100.

The portion of the body surface of the patient 104 selected forattaching the sensors 101 that monitor a parameter indicative of a bloodflow or pressure waveform responsive to CPR can depend on the type ofthe selected sensor or sensors and the imaging target (e.g., inferiorvena cava, carotid artery, jugular vein, renal artery, brachial artery,femoral artery or abdominal aorta). Example portions of the body surfaceof the patient 104 that can be selected for attaching the sensors 102include the chest, the neck, the abdomen, the limb of the patient 104,etc.

The sensors 101 and 102 can be electrically coupled to the patientmonitoring device 106. An example of a patient monitoring device 106 canbe a standard CPR monitoring device, a portable CPR monitoring device, adefibrillator, a smartphone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), alaptop, a tablet personal computer (PC), a desktop PC, a set-top box, aninteractive television, and/or combinations thereof or any other type ofmedical device capable to record and process CPR signals and parameters.For example, the sensors 101 and 102 can be implemented in or coupled tostandard medical devices, such as X-Series monitors and defibrillatorsproduced by ZOLL Medical®, Chelmsford MA. In some implementations, thepatient monitoring device 106 communicates with an external device(e.g., a device that can operate independent of the patient monitoringdevice 106). For example, the external device may include user interfacefunctionality, and information communicated by the patient monitoringdevice 106 can be provided to a user by way of the user interfacefunctionality (e.g., displayed on a display). The external device can beany appropriate device, such as a laptop, tablet computer, smartphone,smartwatch, or any of the other electronic devices mentioned above.

In the illustrated example, the patient monitoring device 106 isconfigured to display a feedback to the user. The feedback can include asubstantially real-time report of the ongoing CPR and/or arecommendation to modify the CPR protocol (e.g., chest compressionrate). The feedback can based on a parameter 108 a and a chestcompression waveform 108 b that are acquired via the sensors 101 and 102and processed by the device 106. The parameter 108 a can depict vasculartone of the patient undergoing CPR treatment (e.g., using a mechanicalchest compression device 109 including a mechanical chest compressiondevice controller 119 and a mechanical ventilation unit 113). Examplesof such parameters 108 a can include blood flow, pulse wave velocity,blood pressure in a particular artery, etc. The chest compressionwaveform 108 b can depict the variation of compression displacement andcompression rate (for example, a numerical value of the averagecompression rate determined for a window of chest compressions) overtime.

The monitoring device 106 enables user input via the user interface 110and additional control buttons 112 and 114. In some implementations, thecontrol buttons 112 can enable a user to select one of a plurality ofavailable modes (e.g., display modes, or other types of output modes,such as audio output modes) of the user interface 110. In someimplementations, the graphical user interface 110 can be configured tooperate in one of multiple modes, depending on the level ofsophistication of the user of the monitoring device 106. For example, afirst mode can be tailored to a medical professional with any level oftraining, or a non-medical professional, and may not display detaileddata (e.g., data received from the sensors such as data describing theparameter 108 a). Instead, the first mode can provide plain-languageinstructions that would be understandable by a medical professional or anon-medical professional, such as the instructions shown in the output111.

A second mode of the graphical user interface 110 can provide moredetailed information, such as information that may be of interest to amedical professional having a training about data provided by thesensors 102. The second mode can include the display of the parameter108 a indicative of the blood flow or pressure waveform and/or the chestcompression waveform 108 b. For example, the parameter 108 a and thechest compression waveform 108 b may be used by a clinician inadministration and optimization of CPR treatment.

In some implementations, the control buttons 114 can enable a user toinitiate, stop or modify particular actions that can be performed by thepatient monitoring device 106. Actions that can be initiated, stopped ormodified by using the buttons 114 can include the selection ofprocessing method, selection of an alarm threshold, suspension of alarm,recording of data, and transmitting data over the network to a remotedevice. In general, the user interface 110 can be implemented by one ormore modules of the monitoring device 106 (e.g., physical devicesincluding processors, software such as executable code, or a combinationof both).

In some implementations, the monitoring device 106 can also include atimer (or metronome) 116 (e.g., as a module of a microprocessor ormicrocontroller of the monitoring device 106). The timer 116 can enablea user of the device 106 to monitor an amount of time elapsed since theCPR treatment commenced. The initiation of time recording can betriggered by a user interacting with the device 106, by identifyingstart of CPR based on the received chest compression waveform 108 b ordetecting chest displacement, by detecting the deployment of adefibrillator, etc. For example, a compression displacement, which isproportional to the compression force applied by the rescuer 105, 107 onthe patient's chest, that is different than 0 cm can be used as anindicator that CPR was initiated.

The monitoring device 106 can also include a rate indicating prompt(e.g. a metronome) and/or audible, visual or text instructional promptsto perform chest compressions at a given compression rate or with aparticular timing. For example, the user can be initially prompted withthe use of a metronome (e.g., a rate indicating prompt) and/or audibleinstructional prompts to perform CPR at a specific rate, (e.g.,according to AHA guidelines, such as 100 cpm with 4-5 cm compressiondepths). Audible prompts may take the form of verbal messages such as,“Press Faster” or a particular tone that indicates that the correct rateor timing has been achieved, for instance a “Ping” sound for when thecorrect rate or timing has been achieved and a “Thud” sound for when therate is incorrect. An example of a text prompt might be “Press Faster”or “Press slower” appearing on a display of a defibrillator thatprovides CPR coaching. An example of a visual prompt might be a numericvalue of the compression rate; it might also be an up or down arrowindicating for the rescuer to press faster or slower, respectively.Based on the recorded parameter 108 a indicative of the blood flow orpressure waveform or the time elapsed and the chest compression waveform108 b, the compression rate and/or compression depth can be altered fromthe recommended guideline via the metronome and voice prompts to improvecirculation. For example, the feedback control system via the metronomeand audible prompts can assist the user in manually changing thecompression rate or authorizing an automatic change of the compressionrate, as described with reference to FIGS. 3 and 4. In implementationswhere chest compressions are delivered by a mechanical device, such as abelt driven or piston based chest compression device, the compressionrate may be modified based on a parameter indicative of the blood flowor pressure waveform, based on elapsed time, or a combination of both.

In some implementations, the user can be prompted by the monitoringdevice 106 to perform CPR at a particular compression rate. The user maybe provided additional prompts, for example, relating to the compressiondepth (e.g., to push harder or softer), to fully release the chest, etc.For example, if the monitoring device 106 has determined that the chestis not being compressed to the AHA recommended depth of 4-5 cm or notbeing completely released at the end of each compression the device mayprompt the user to correct his or her chest compression depth and/orrelease.

The monitoring device 106 can also have audio capability. For example,based upon detection of a particular CPR condition, the monitoringdevice 106 can issue audible prompts instructing the rescuer to decreasecompression rate, to stop compressions for a brief period or to deliverone or several rescue breaths. The monitoring device 106 can prompt therescuer to resume chest compressions at an updated compression rate asit monitors compression rate and parameters indicative of blood flow orpressure (e.g., vascular response, blood flow, etc.) to estimate thesuccess of CPR efforts and the device may provide further promptsrelated to compression rate, depth, and breathing. In another example,the monitoring device may prompt the rescuer to provide the AHArecommended compression rate at the beginning of CPR and graduallydecrease the rate of chest compressions as a function of lapsed time.For example, the rescuer may be prompted to decrease the compressionrate to from about 100 compressions per minute (cpm) to about 75 cpm. AsCPR progresses the rescuer may be prompted to decrease compression ratesfurther based on the monitored parameter(s), for example, to about 50cpm.

FIG. 2 shows an example system 200 that includes CPR monitoringprocesses, including identification of a trigger to optimize a CPRtreatment. The cardio-vascular activity of a patient can be continuouslymonitored by the patient monitoring device 106, which includes anarterial monitoring device and/or a timer. The patient monitoring device106 can include a patient information system 224 and a computerinterface 120, forming a system for indicating that the rate of chestcompressions should be changed to an optimized rate. The optimized ratecorresponds to a CPR treatment with an increased probability of successby promoting an increase in cardiac output

The system 200 for indicating that the rate of chest compressions shouldbe changed to an optimized rate can provide changes that can occurautomatically upon the identification of an event (e.g., detection of aparameter feature and/or value of blood flow or pressure or temporalthreshold). Different facility systems 208 and 210 may process inputdata according to different rules. For example, in some cases, patientdata is transferred to a remote device 202 at the identification of anevent (e.g., detection of a parameter feature and/or value of blood flowor pressure). In other cases, data can be transferred upon a request ofa user of the remote device 202.

The remote device 202 can include, but are not limited to, a mobilephone, a smartphone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a laptop, atablet personal computer (PC), a desktop PC, a set-top box, aninteractive television, and/or combinations thereof. The remote device202 includes a display 212, a processor 214, memory 216, an inputinterface 218, and a communication interface 220.

The remote device 202 can communicate wirelessly through thecommunication interface(s) 204, which can include digital signalprocessing circuitry. The communication interface(s) 204 can providecommunications under various modes or protocols including, but notlimited to, GSM voice calls, SMS, EMS or MMS messaging, CDMA, TDMA, PDC,WCDMA, CDMA2000, and/or GPRS. Such communication can occur, for example,through a radio-frequency transceiver (not shown). Further, the remotedevice can be capable of short-range communication using featuresincluding, but not limited to, Bluetooth and/or WiFi transceivers (notshown).

The remote device 202 communicates with the network 206 through theconnectivity interface(s) 204. The connectivity interface(s) 204 caninclude, but is not limited to, a satellite receiver, cellular network,a Bluetooth system, a Wi-Fi system (e.g., 202.x), a cable modem, aDSL/dial-up interface, and/or a private branch exchange (PBX) system.Each of these connectivity interfaces 204 enables data to be transmittedto/from the network 206. The network 206 can be provided as a local areanetwork (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), a wireless LAN (WLAN), ametropolitan area network (MAN), a personal area network (PAN), theInternet, and/or combinations thereof.

In the systems of FIG. 2, the first facility system 208 includes aplurality of facilities 222, and the second facility system 210 includesa single facility 222. Each facility 208, 210 or 222 includes anassociated patient information system 224, computer system(s) 226, andpatient monitoring device(s) 106. In some implementations, the patientinformation system 224 can include a cardiology information system.Although the system architecture 200 includes a patient informationsystem 224 located at each facility 222, it is contemplated that thefacilities 222 can communicate with a common patient information system224 that is remotely located from either facility 222, or that islocated at one of the facilities 222 within the facility system 208,210.

Each patient monitoring device 106 is configured to monitorphysiological characteristics of a particular patient 104, to generatedata signals based thereon. For example, the patient monitoring devices106 include CPR monitoring devices, monitoring devices for physiologicalparameters, and one or more processors. The data signals arecommunicated to the patient information system 224 which can collectpatient data based thereon, and store the data to a patient profile thatis associated with the particular patient. The patient monitoring device106 can communicate with the patient information system 224 and/or thecomputer interface 120 via a direct connection, or remotely through anetwork (not shown) that can include, but is not limited to, a LAN, aWAN, a WLAN, and/or the Internet.

In some cases, the patient data can include CPR waveforms, physiologicalparameters, data extracted from the processed physiological parameters(e.g., portion of physiological parameter and indicator) and,optionally, additional coregistered physiological data. The patient datacan be made available for display on remote device 202 and/or directlyat the patient monitoring device 106. A healthcare provider (e.g., atechnician, a nurse, and/or physician) can augment the patient data byinputting patient information that can be stored by a patientinformation system 224. More specifically, the healthcare provider caninput patient information corresponding to a particular patient 104,which patient information can be stored to the patient profile. Ahealthcare provider can also provide instructions to the remote rescuerto modify the CPR treatment, for example, by changing the rate of chestcompressions.

As discussed above, each patient information system 224 stores patientdata that can be collected from the patient monitoring devices 106, aswell as additional patient information, that can include informationthat is input by a healthcare provider. The patient information system224 communicates the patient data and/or the additional patient data toa server 232, or a virtual server that runs server software components,and can include data storage including, but not limited to, a databaseand/or flat files. Each patient information system 224 communicates withthe server 232 via a direct connection, or remotely through a network(not shown) that can include, but is not limited to, a LAN, a WAN, aWLAN, and/or the Internet.

The server 232 can communicate ancillary information (e.g., treatmentplan) to the patient information system 224. In some implementations,each facility system 208, 210 can include a corresponding server 232. Insuch an arrangement, each patient information system 224 communicatespatient data, and/or additional patient data to the server 232. Theexample system architecture of FIG. 2, provides for the remote locationof data collection at the server 232. In such implementations, theserver 232 can be provided at a third-party site, remote from any of thefacilities 222, or facility systems 208, 210.

FIG. 3 shows an example process 300 for assisting with CPR treatmentbased on identification of a feature of the parameter(s) indicative of ablood flow or pressure waveform of the patient. In some examples, themethod 300 can be implemented by the patient monitoring device 106described above with reference to FIGS. 1 and 2. However, otherimplementations are possible.

At a step 302, a patient is monitored by recording one or more types ofparameters, including an arterial waveform. The parameter can bereceived from any appropriate source of patient parameter. For example,the parameter can be received substantially in real-time from an atonometer, a laser Doppler blood flow sensor, a blood pressure sensor,or another sensor for measuring blood flow or pressure waveforms. Theparameter can be of any appropriate type. The parameter can be recordedfrom a plurality of sites on the surface of the patient's body, such asinferior vena cava, carotid artery, renal artery, brachial artery,femoral artery, and/or abdominal aorta. In some implementations, bloodflow, pulse wave velocity, and/or blood pressure can be derived based onsignals retrieved with the arterial sensors, such as that in graphsillustrated in FIGS. 6A-6E.

In some implementations, information about the source of the parameterfor determining a blood flow or pressure waveform can be provided to apatient monitoring device (e.g., the patient monitoring device 106 shownin FIG. 1). For example, the patient monitoring device can adapt theconfiguration of the display and/or analysis tools based on the sourceof the parameter, such that the axis labels and ranges enable optimalvisualization. In some implementations, the parameter indicative of theblood flow or pressure waveform is received together with additionalpatient data, including the depth and rate of chest compressions exertedby the user on the patient, other physiological data recordings, medicalhistory, physical exam findings, and other medical information thatmight be requested by a user. Patient data can be used in conjunctionwith patient-specific physiological parameter for data processing anddisplay, or it can be used to correlate information extracted from themeasured parameters. In some cases, physiological parameters measuredfrom sensors other than those used to determine the blood flow orpressure waveform of the patient may be used to guide resuscitativetherapy.

At step 304, a parameter indicative of the blood flow or pressurewaveform is determined based on the signal received from an arterialsensor. The parameter provides a time-dependent indication of thecardiac output and/or blood flow. Multiple parameter sites fordetermining the blood flow or pressure waveform can provide differenttime-dependent parameters that each reflect cardiac output and/or bloodflow. For example, a change in the cardiac output can appear morepronounced in a parameter measured at a particular site (e.g., inferiorvena cava).

Additionally, at step 304, the patient monitoring device can performparameter pre-processing substantially in real time. Real time parameterpre-processing can include removing the DC component with a high-passfilter, amplifying the measured parameter(s), limiting the signalbandwidth with a low-pass filter and digitally sampling the measuredparameter(s). It will be appreciated that the processing will provide anindication of cardiac output and/or blood flow substantially inreal-time, including within a meaningful time to allow a user and/ormechanical chest compression device to modify chest compression rates,if needed.

At a step 306, the process determines the occurrence of a feature in aportion of the parameter(s), for example a feature in an arterial orvenous flow or pressure waveform, such as a local maximum 616 showing anotable increase in arterial flow volume, as illustrated in FIGS. 6A-6C.In some implementations, the determined feature or the absence of afeature (such as the absence of a period of increased flow) isindicative of a change (e.g., reduction) in arterial flow, bloodpressure, and/or backward flow. The portion of the arterial or venouswaveform can correspond to the systolic and/or diastolic phase.

For example, where the arterial (or venous) waveform is monitored,identifying a portion of the waveform can include determining an onsetof a chest compression and an end of the compression (e.g., the onset ofcompression down-stroke and end of upstroke). Other fiducial points mayalso be used to determine a portion of the waveform to be analyzed. Insome implementations, each waveform portion to be analyzed is determinedbased on a simultaneously recorded ECG.

In some implementations, the information about a plurality of waveformportions is used to calculate a reference portion and store thereference portion. In some implementations, statistical shape analysiscan be used to characterize the waveform or groups of waveforms. Forexample, a reference portion can be generated automatically at thebeginning of the CPR treatment session or it can be obtained based on adatabase of waveforms. The patient monitoring device can be configuredto receive a user input on that allows the user to manually initiate anew acquisition of the reference portion and/or the monitored portion.The reference portion can be determined for two or more waveformscorresponding to different arterial or venous targets (e.g., inferiorvena cava, carotid artery, jugular vein, renal artery, brachial artery,femoral artery, abdominal aorta, etc.). In some implementations, thereference portion can be determined as described above, or it cancorrespond to 30 seconds up to 3 minutes. The time period can beconfigured in the non-volatile storage memory of the patient monitoringdevice.

In some implementations, statistical shape analysis can be employed.Such shape analysis includes methods for studying the geometricalproperties of objects, such as a waveform. The constraints can bedetermined from historical data (e.g., by machine learning) giving themodel flexibility, robustness and specificity as the model synthesizesplausible instances with respect to the observations. In order todetermine whether an object (e.g., a waveform portion, or feature of thewaveform) has changed shape, the shape of the object is firstdetermined. In addition to using the shape analysis of a waveformportion, other parameters can be used in the analysis, for example, alandmark, an anatomical landmark, mathematical landmarks, etc.

Analysis of the baseline and/or reference portion (or value) of one ormore parameters in comparison to the monitored portion (or value) of theone or more parameters can be determined substantially in real-time.Such analysis can be used to determine a decrease of cardiac output orblood flow. The occurrence of a decrease of cardiac output and/or bloodflow can be calculated by a variety of methods. In some examples, thedecrease of cardiac output and/or blood flow can be determined based ona mathematical model, such as one based on logistic regression.Exemplary logistic regression models that can be used include univariateanalysis or multivariate non-linear regression.

In one implementation, the identification of the decrease of cardiacoutput and/or blood flow can be determined at regular intervals such as10 seconds, 30 seconds, or 1 minute. The logistic model can take intoaccount the first, second and higher order derivatives of the shapedistance between the first and second portions of parameters indicativeof the blood flow or pressure waveform (e.g., an arterial or venouswaveform). In other words, if the distance is diverging more rapidly,that is a sign of the patient's condition degenerating more rapidly andthis in itself can indicate the decrease in cardiac output and/or bloodflow. An analysis, such as a statistical one, is performed on parametertrajectories for multiple compression cycles. The analysis can be usedto determine whether cardiac output and/or blood flow is decreasing orincreasing.

In some implementations, the analysis can be based on an average ormedian of a value of a parameter indicative of the blood flow orpressure waveform corresponding to a plurality of compression cycles. Insome implementations, the average or median of a value of a parameterobtained from within the previous 5 seconds up to 10 minutes frompresent time can be used. The time period, from which the average ormedian of the value of the parameter is determined, can be separated byat least 5 seconds from the time period corresponding to a referenceperiod (e.g., obtained at the beginning of CPR or from a patientdatabase).

The analysis of a new set of test parameters indicative of the bloodflow or pressure waveform can be based on a time threshold (e.g., a newset of parameters is analyzed every 3 minutes or every 30 minutes) orcan be based on a trigger such as the start of a new compression cycle(e.g., corresponding to multiple compressions). A parameter value and/orfeature is determined for a particular compression that can be includedin the set of test parameters indicative of the blood flow or pressurewaveform. The system can monitor the length of time for which the one ormore parameters are measured based on a predetermined criteria. Forexample, the size of the test set can be based on a threshold number ofparameters and/or on a time based threshold. If the size of the test sethas not been reached, the system continues to determine parameter valuesand/or features to add to the test set. If the size of the test set hasbeen reached, the system characterizes the test set of parameters.

In some implementations, the occurrence of a feature of interest in theparameter indicative of the blood flow or pressure waveform isidentified by comparing the test parameter trajectory to a controlparameter trajectory. The feature can be identified based on astatistical analysis. For example, a variation of the parametertrajectory from the control parameter trajectory that occurs for aportion of the parameter and exceeds the standard deviation of thecontrol parameter trajectory can be identified as the occurrence of thefeature of interest. In some implementations, the action of arterialfeature identification can include calculating an area of the parametertrajectory and subtracting the area of the parameter trajectory from anarea of the control parameter trajectory.

In some implementations, the step 306 is repeated multiple times tocompare the parameter or a portion of the parameter indicative of theblood flow or pressure waveform of multiple consecutive compressions ofa plurality of compression cycles to determine a trend of the waveformparameter. Based on the trend, a decrease or an increase of cardiacoutput and/or blood flow can be identified. For example, the action ofidentifying an arterial feature (e.g., local maxima 616 in flow,described with reference to FIGS. 6A-6E) and monitoring the feature canbe repeated (e.g., over multiple compression cycles) and/or conductedsubstantially continuously during CPR. For example, the occurrence of afeature and/or a value of the blood flow or pressure waveform parametercan be identified for each recorded compression cycle, after the controlblood flow or pressure waveform parameter trajectory was determined.

At step 308, the system determines an optimal change of chestcompression rate. The change of chest compression rate can include adecrease or an increase of chest compression rate relative to previouslyapplied chest compression rate. The optimal change of chest compressionrate can be based on the identification of the occurrence of a featurein the blood flow or pressure waveform parameter and the recorded CPRsignal.

For example, if the monitored blood flow or pressure waveform parameteris characterized by a trend that indicates a gradual decrease in bloodflow over multiple heart beats, during which CPR was applied using thesame compression depth and rate (e.g., 100 cpm), the system candetermine that the revised rate of chest compressions is a fraction ofthe previously applied rate (e.g., 75 cpm). In some implementations, theoptimal change of chest compression rate can be proportional to thechanging trend of the blood flow or pressure waveform parameter.

At step 310, the system provides feedback to the user of the deviceindicating the revised compression rate. For example, the feedback canbe provided by a user interface module (e.g., implementing the userinterface 110 of FIG. 1). In some implementations, the indicator caninclude a visual display on the monitoring device based on theidentification of the occurrence of a feature in the blood flow orpressure waveform parameter and, in some implementations, an alarmalerts a user of the device about the occurrence of the feature. In someimplementations, both the metronome rate and the compression prompts canbe used simultaneously to guide the user in applying CPR. In otherimplementations a mechanical chest compression device can be reset to arevised compression rate.

The example process 300 can be repeated multiple times until thecompletion of CPR treatment. For example, if compression characteristicsmatch the defined level and a blood flow or pressure waveform parameteris measured and it indicates optimal vascular tone, CPR can beconsidered adequate and no changes to the metronome and/or additionalvoice prompts are generated. As another example, if compressioncharacteristics match the previously defined optimal level (at step 308)and an arterial or venous waveform is measured and it indicates adecrease in vascular tone, CPR can be considered inadequate. In responseto determining that CPR protocol is inadequate, a revised rate of chestcompressions can be determined and the user can be prompted to modifyCPR based on the newly identified rate of chest compressions.

FIG. 4 shows an example process 400 for assisting with CPR treatmentbased on identification of an amount of time elapsed since the CPRtreatment commenced. In one implementation, the method 400 isimplemented by the example patient monitoring device described hereinwith reference to FIGS. 1 and 2. However, other implementations arepossible.

At a step 402, CPR treatment is initiated. For example, metronome and/oradditional voice prompts are generated to guide a rescuer in applyingCPR treatment at a first compression rate and depth. As another example,CPR treatment can be applied to the patient automatically using amechanical CPR device configured to deliver mechanical CPR treatment.The device can be configured to actively compress and activelydecompress the chest of the patient or to permit passive decompressionof the chest of the patient at a first compression rate and depth of avariable resuscitation protocol. In some implementations, a plurality ofsensors (e.g., ECG electrodes, CPR sensor, blood pressure sensor, SpO₂sensor, etc.) can be attached to the patient to monitor one or signalsduring CPR treatment.

At step 404, an amount of time elapsed since the CPR treatment commencedis determined. The amount of time can be determined by a timer module.The timer module can be integrated in a monitoring device (e.g., timer116 included in monitoring device 106, as described with reference toFIG. 1), in a CPR assistance device (e.g., configured to deliver instantaudiovisual feedback of compression depth and rate, complete chestrecoil, hands-off time and ventilation rate), in a mechanical CPRdevice, in a smartphone, in a smart watch, in a personal digitalassistant (PDA), in a laptop, in a tablet personal computer (PC), in adesktop PC, in a set-top box, in an interactive television and/orcombinations thereof or any other type of device capable to record andprocess the amount of time elapsed since the CPR treatment commenced.

At a step 406, the process compares the amount of time elapsed since theCPR treatment commenced to a selected temporal threshold. The temporalthreshold can be set between approximately 15 and 25 minutes. In someimplementations, the threshold can be set at 20 minutes. The comparisoncan be performed at preset intervals (e.g., every second or everyminute). In some implementations, step 406 can also include a comparisonof recorded physiological signals to control physiological signals orcritical ranges.

At a step 408, if the threshold has not been reached or none of thephysiological signals are in critical ranges, the system continues tocompare the amount of time elapsed since the CPR treatment commenced tothe threshold. If the threshold has been reached, the system determinesan optimal change of chest compression rate. The change of chestcompression rate can include a decrease of chest compression rate to asecond compression rate to the first applied chest compression rate.Optionally, the change can include a change in depth relative to thefirst applied compression. The optimal change of chest compression ratecan be based on the amount of time elapsed since the CPR treatmentcommenced to the threshold. For example, the CPR treatment can includeone or more changes of the compression rate based on the amount of timeelapsed since the CPR treatment commenced to the threshold. If a singlethreshold is selected, the CPR treatment can be set to be initiated at100 cpm and after 20 minutes to be continued at 50 cpm. If multiplethresholds are selected, the CPR treatment can be initiated at 150 cpm,after 10 minutes it can be continued at 100 cpm, and after 20 minutes itcan be continued at 50 cpm.

At step 410, the system provides a feedback to the user of the deviceindicating the optimal change of the compression rate. In someimplementations, the indicator can include a visual display on themonitoring device based on the identification of the occurrence of afeature in an arterial or venous waveform and an alarm that alerts auser of the device. In some implementations, both the metronome rate andthe compression prompts can be used simultaneously to guide the user inapplying CPR with identified optimal parameters.

The example process 400 can be adjusted if any of the recorded signalsreaches critical ranges. For example, if a blood flow or pressurewaveform feature is determined and it indicates a decrease to a criticalvalue before the amount of time elapsed since the CPR treatmentcommenced reached the threshold, CPR can be considered inadequate. Ifthe applied CPR is determined as being inadequate, a revised rate ofchest compressions can be determined and the user can be prompted tomodify CPR based on the revised rate of chest compressions.

FIG. 5 shows an example illustration 500, which is not limiting of thevarious possible implementations that can be employed. Chestcompressions were performed using a laboratory mechanical chestcompression device on nine domestic porcine models (˜30 Kg). Standardblood flow or pressure waveform monitoring was utilized. Blood flow wasmeasured in the abdominal aorta (AAo), the inferior vena cava, the rightrenal artery and vein, the right common carotid and external jugular.Ventricular fibrillation (VF) was electrically induced. Mechanical chestcompressions were started after ten minutes of VF. Chest compressionswere delivered at rates of 50, 75, 100, 125, or 150 compressions perminute (cpm) and at a depth of 2″ for a total of 54 min. The rates werechanged every 2 min in a randomized fashion.

During the first 10 minutes of CPR, a chest compression rate of 150 cpmresulted in significantly more net AAo blood flow than a rate of 50 cpm(133.2±21.0 vs. 39.0±8.1 ml/min; p<0.05). During minutes 40-50 ofcontinued compressions, a rate of 150 resulted in significantly less netAAo blood flow than a rate of 50 cpm (−1.7±4.5 vs. 13.5±5.9 ml/min;p<0.05). A difference in blood flow was generated on a per compressionbasis (ml/comp) for 150 vs. 50 cpm (−0.01±0.03 vs. 0.27±0.12 ml/comp;p<0.05). Referring to FIG. 5, in several porcine models, a compressionrate of 150 cpm emptied the AAo and renal artery of blood while acompression rate of 50 cpm restored blood to the AAo. AAo pressuremeasurements confirmed the flow observations. It was found that at theonset of CPR, a compression rate of 150 cpm was significantly moreeffective at generating AAo blood flow than a compression rate of 50cpm. However, after 40 minutes of compressions, reduced AAo flow andpressure resulted from higher compression rates (>125 cpm), suggestingthat these rates should be avoided as resuscitation progresses.

FIGS. 6A-6E are plots of blood flow volume (mL) waveforms 602, 604, 606,608, and 610 measured in the common carotid arteries of porcine modelsof VF administered CPR at 50, 75, 100, 125 and 150 cpm, respectively,similar to that described with reference to FIG. 5, except thesewaveforms correspond to carotid flow volumes at time periods between0-10 minutes after compressions have been initiated. Each of thedisplayed carotid flow volume waveforms 602, 604, 606, 608, and 610indicates the variation in blood flow volume corresponding to theapplied compression rate 50, 75, 100, 125 and 150 cpm, respectively. Theblood flow volume waveforms include variations corresponding to theapplied compressions. For example, the variations of the blood flowvolume include a peak region 612 corresponding to each compression, abackward flow minimum 614, a local maximum 616 and a baseline region618. Those of skill in the art may refer to the peak region as asystolic-type behavior that occurs during chest compression; similarly,the region characterized by the local maximum and baseline may bereferred to as a diastolic-type behavior. Referring to FIGS. 6A-6C, eachpeak region 612, backward flow minimum 614, local maximum 616 andbaseline region 618 can be distinguished in the blood flow volumewaveforms 602, 604, and 606, respectively. That is, each of the notedfeatures are prominently shown in the waveform for identification.Referring to FIGS. 6D and 6E, some of the above-noted features of theblood flow volume waveforms 608 and 610 are not easily distinguishedfrom other portions of the waveform. For example, the local maxima 616and the baseline regions 618 cannot be identified in the blood flowvolume waveforms 608 and 610. It has been observed that for some cases,the amplitude of the peak region 612 and the amplitude of the backwardflow minimum 614 is inversely proportional with the compression rate.For example, at times, the peak region 612 and the backward flow minimum614 may present larger amplitudes in the mean blood flow volumewaveforms 602 and 604 corresponding to the lower compression rates of 50cpm and 75 cpm.

Upon further inspection of the blood flow volume waveforms of FIGS.6A-6E, the waveforms 604, 606 corresponding to compression rates of 75cpm and 100 cpm, respectively, appear to provide more favorable flowcharacteristics. For instance, with each compression, the peak region612 is accompanied by a local maximum 616, indicating that additionalblood is able to flow, possibly due to the occurrence of backflowreflections in a positive direction. It is noted that the waveform 602corresponding to a compression rate of 50 cpm also includes a prominentlocal maximum 616, however, the baseline region 618 covers asubstantially long time period before the next compression ensues. Withthe objective being to maximize blood flows, it is preferable for acompression to begin immediately after or during the local maximum 616(as shown by waveforms 604, 606), rather having a relatively long delay(as indicated by the extended baseline region 618) before a subsequentcompression begins. As discussed above, the waveforms 608, 610corresponding to compression rates of 125 cpm and 150 cpm showrespective peak regions 612, yet absent a local maximum 616. Dependingon the amount of blood flow per compression, it may be preferable forthe compressions to be timed such that the local maximum 616 appears, soas to increase overall blood flow.

It should be appreciated that the features present in the blood flow orpressure waveforms corresponding to particular compression rates willvary depending on the amount of time elapsed from when continuouscompressions have been initiated. For instance, as compressionscontinue, for a given compression rate, the characteristics of the bloodflow waveform, such as the length of the baseline region 618, amplitudeof the peak region 612, amplitude of the backward flow minimum 614,amplitude of the local maximum 616, etc., may change. The recommendedcompression rate, provided through feedback systems described herein,may be based, at least in part, on certain features of the blood flowwaveforms, elapsed time period, and/or other indications of flow.

FIGS. 7A and 7B are plots of aortic flows obtained from porcine modelsadministered various compression rates during resuscitation, asdescribed with reference to FIG. 5. FIG. 7A illustrates a flow perminute analysis 700. The flow per minute analysis 700 includes plots ofaortic flows per minute 702, 704, 706, 708, and 710 obtained fromporcine models administered CPR at 150, 125, 100, 75 and 50 cpm,respectively. FIG. 7B illustrates a flow per compression analysis 720.The flow per compression analysis 720 includes plots of aortic flows percompression 722, 724, 726, 728, and 730 obtained from porcine modelsadministered CPR at 150, 125, 100, 75 and 50 cpm, respectively.

The flow per minute analysis 700 and the flow per compression analysis720 indicate that during the first 10 minutes of compressions, a chestcompression rate of 150 cpm (illustrated by plots 702 and 722) resultedin significantly more net aortic blood flow than a rate of 50 cpm(illustrated by plots 710 and 730). This flow behavior is expectedbecause the flow per compression analysis 720 shows that the aorticflows for all compression rates during the first 10 minutes ofcompressions are relatively high and similar in magnitude. Thus, moreflow occurs when more compressions are given. However, during minutes30-40 and 40-50 of continued compressions, a rate of 150 cpm(illustrated by plots 702 and 722) resulted in less net aortic bloodflow than a rate of 50 cpm (illustrated by plots 710 and 730). Asillustrated by the flow per compression analysis 720, the aortic flowsfor high compression rates (e.g., 125 cpm, 150 cpm) notably decreased astime elapsed past 30 minutes. Though, despite the decrease in flow percompression at high compression rates, the aortic flows for lowercompression rates (e.g., 50 cpm, 75 cpm) stayed relatively high. Thus,while the flow for high compression rates (e.g., 150 cpm) decreased overa period of 30-50 minutes, the flow for comparatively lower compressionrates (e.g., 50 cpm) remained steady. Such a finding would indicate thatwhile higher compression rates may be beneficial to produce favorableblood flow at the beginning of chest compressions, it may be preferableto reduce the compression rate after a particular period of time tomaintain a more acceptable amount of blood flow than would otherwise beproduced if the compression rate were not changed.

In various porcine models, a compression rate of 150 cpm (illustrated byplots 702 and 722) was observed to empty the aortic artery of bloodwhile a compression rate of 50 cpm (illustrated by plots 710 and 730)was observed to restore blood to the aorta. It was found that at theonset of CPR, a compression rate of 150 cpm (illustrated by plots 702and 722) was significantly more effective at generating aortic bloodflow than a compression rate of 50 cpm (illustrated by plots 710 and730). However, as discussed above, after a particular time interval (forexample, 20-40 minutes of compressions), reduced aortic flow resultedfrom higher compression rates (>125 cpm), suggesting that compressionrates should be changed as resuscitation progresses. That is, anindication may be given to a care provider and/or chest compressionsystem that the rate of chest compressions should be changed based on anamount of time elapsed since chest compressions have commenced. Forexample, this amount of time elapsed may be between approximately 5-30minutes, between approximately 1-5 minutes, between approximately 1-10minutes, between approximately 10-30 minutes, between approximately20-30 minutes, between approximately 10-20 minutes, or any othersuitable period of time. By way of example, for various embodiments, thechange in the rate of compressions may be from a rate above 100 cpm(e.g., 100-150 cpm, 100-120 cpm, etc.) to a rate below 100 cpm (e.g.,50-100 cpm, 50-75 cpm, 75-100 cpm, etc.). In some cases, uponcommencement of chest compressions, the system may check blood flow orpressure or perfusion of the patient after a preset period of time(e.g., 1 minute, 2 minutes, 3 minutes, 4 minutes, 5 minutes, 10 minutes,etc.) to determine whether the rate of compressions should be adjusted.Further, after this amount of time has elapsed, a parameter indicativeof blood flow, blood pressure and/or perfusion, as measured by a sensor(e.g., perfusion: SpO2, photoplethysmographic sensor, near-infraredspectrometer) may also be used to modify the recommended rate of chestcompressions.

FIG. 8 is a block diagram of an example computer system 800. Forexample, referring to FIG. 2, computer systems 226 could be an exampleof the system 800 described here, as could the monitoring device 106 asshown in FIG. 1, as could a computer system used by any of the users whointeract with the monitoring device 106 as shown in FIG. 1. The system800 includes a processor 810, a memory 820, a storage device 830, andone or more input/output interface devices 840. Each of the components810, 820, 830, and 840 can be interconnected, for example, using asystem bus 850.

The processor 810 is capable of processing instructions for executionwithin the system 800. The term “execution” as used here refers to atechnique in which program code causes a processor to carry out one ormore processor instructions. In some implementations, the processor 810is a single-threaded processor. In some implementations, the processor810 is a multi-threaded processor. In some implementations, theprocessor 810 is a quantum computer. The processor 810 is capable ofprocessing instructions stored in the memory 820 or on the storagedevice 830. The processor 810 can execute operations such as assistanceof CPR treatment.

The memory 820 stores information within the system 800. In someimplementations, the memory 820 is a computer-readable medium. In someimplementations, the memory 820 is a volatile memory unit. In someimplementations, the memory 820 is a non-volatile memory unit.

The storage device 830 is capable of providing mass storage for thesystem 800. In some implementations, the storage device 830 is anon-transitory computer-readable medium. In various differentimplementations, the storage device 830 can include, for example, a harddisk device, an optical disk device, a solid-date drive, a flash drive,magnetic tape, or some other large capacity storage device. In someimplementations, the storage device 830 can be a cloud storage device(e.g., a logical storage device including one or more physical storagedevices distributed on a network and accessed using a network), such asthe network 206 shown in FIG. 2. In some examples, the storage devicecan store long-term data, such as data described in this application asstored on a patient information system 224 as shown in FIG. 2. Theinput/output interface devices 840 provide input/output operations forthe system 800. In some implementations, the input/output interfacedevices 840 can include one or more of a network interface devices(e.g., an Ethernet interface), a serial communication device (e.g., anRS-232 interface), and/or a wireless interface device (e.g., an 802.11interface), a 3G wireless modem, a 4G wireless modem, etc. A networkinterface device allows the system 800 to communicate, for example,transmit and receive data such as data described in this application asbeing communicated by way of a network 206, as shown in FIG. 2. In someimplementations, the input/output device can include driver devicesconfigured to receive input data and send output data to otherinput/output devices (e.g., keyboard, printer and display devices 860).In some implementations, mobile computing devices, mobile communicationdevices, and other devices can be used.

Computer program modules can be realized by instructions that uponexecution cause one or more processing devices to carry out theprocesses and functions described above, for example, assistance of CPR.Such instructions can include, for example, interpreted instructionssuch as script instructions, or executable code, or other instructionsstored in a computer readable medium. In general, a module can includesoftware, hardware, or a combination of both.

A server 232 as shown in FIG. 2 can be distributively implemented over anetwork, such as a server farm, or a set of widely distributed serversor can be implemented in a single virtual device that includes multipledistributed devices that operate in coordination with one another. Forexample, one of the devices can control the other devices, or thedevices can operate under a set of coordinated rules or protocols, orthe devices can be coordinated in another fashion. The coordinatedoperation of the multiple distributed devices presents the appearance ofoperating as a single device.

In some examples, the system 800 is contained within a single integratedcircuit package. A system 800 of this kind, in which both a processor810 and one or more other components are contained within a singleintegrated circuit package and/or fabricated as a single integratedcircuit, is sometimes called a microcontroller. In some implementations,the integrated circuit package includes pins that correspond toinput/output ports that can be used to communicate signals to and fromone or more of the input/output interface devices 840.

Although an example processing system has been described in FIG. 2,implementations of the subject matter and the functional operationsdescribed above can be implemented in other types of digital electroniccircuitry, or in computer software, firmware, or hardware, including thestructures disclosed in this specification and their structuralequivalents, or in combinations of one or more of them. Implementationsof the subject matter described in this specification, such as storing,maintaining, and displaying artifacts can be implemented as one or morecomputer program products, (e.g., one or more modules of computerprogram instructions encoded on a tangible program carrier, for examplea computer-readable medium, for execution by, or to control theoperation of, a processing system). The computer readable medium can bea machine readable storage device, a machine readable storage substrate,a memory device, or a combination of one or more of them.

The term “system” can encompass all apparatus, devices, and machines forprocessing data, including by way of example a programmable processor, acomputer, or multiple processors or computers. A processing system caninclude, in addition to hardware, code that creates an executionenvironment for the computer program in question (e.g., code thatconstitutes processor firmware), a protocol stack, a database managementsystem, an operating system, or a combination of one or more of them.

A computer program (also known as a program, software, softwareapplication, script, executable logic, or code) can be written in anyform of programming language, including compiled or interpretedlanguages, or declarative or procedural languages, and it can bedeployed in any form, including as a standalone program or as a module,component, subroutine, or other unit suitable for use in a computingenvironment. A computer program does not necessarily correspond to afile in a file system. A program can be stored in a portion of a filethat holds other programs or data (e.g., one or more scripts stored in amarkup language document), in a single file dedicated to the program inquestion, or in multiple coordinated files (e.g., files that store oneor more modules, sub programs, or portions of code). A computer programcan be deployed to be executed on one computer or on multiple computersthat are located at one site or distributed across multiple sites andinterconnected by a communication network.

Computer readable media suitable for storing computer programinstructions and data include all forms of non-volatile or volatilememory, media and memory devices, including by way of examplesemiconductor memory devices (e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memorydevices); magnetic disks (e.g., internal hard disks or removable disksor magnetic tapes); magneto optical disks; and CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, andBlu-Ray disks. The processor and the memory can be supplemented by, orincorporated in, special purpose logic circuitry. Sometimes a server(e.g., server 232 as shown in FIG. 2) is a general purpose computer, andsometimes it is a custom-tailored special purpose electronic device, andsometimes it is a combination of these things. Implementations caninclude a back end component (e.g., a data server), or a middlewarecomponent (e.g., an application server), or a front end component (e.g.,a client computer having a graphical user interface) or a Web browser,through which a user can interact with an implementation of the subjectmatter described is this specification, or any combination of one ormore such back end, middleware, or front end components. The componentsof the system can be interconnected by any form or medium of digitaldata communication (e.g., a communication network such as the network206 shown in FIG. 2). Examples of communication networks include a localarea network (“LAN”) and a wide area network (“WAN”), e.g., theInternet.

Many other implementations other than those described can be employed,and can be encompassed by the following claims.

1.-36. (canceled)
 37. A system for assisting with a chest compression treatment being administered to a patient, the system comprising: a sensor configured to determine at least one blood flow parameter; a mechanical chest compression device configured to be coupled to patient's chest; and a mechanical chest compression device controller configured to control the mechanical chest compression device, the mechanical chest compression device controller having one or more processors configured for: instructing the mechanical chest compression device to provide chest compressions at a first compression rate, receiving, from the sensor, the at least one blood flow parameter, wherein the at least one blood flow parameter is indicative of blood flow from the administered chest compressions, determining, based on the received blood flow parameter, whether a rate of chest compressions administered in the chest compression treatment should be changed, and instructing the mechanical chest compression device to provide chest compressions at a second compression rate based on the determination of whether the rate of chest compressions should be changed.
 38. The system of claim 37, wherein the blood flow parameter comprises at least one of: a blood flow, blood flow volume, blood flow velocity, a pulse wave velocity, and a blood pressure.
 39. The system of claim 37, wherein the one or more processors are configured for obtaining at least one of a blood flow waveform and a blood pressure waveform.
 40. The system of claim 39, wherein determining, based on the received blood flow parameter, whether the rate of chest compressions administered in the chest compression treatment should be changed comprises processing the blood flow parameter to identify a portion of at least one of: the blood flow waveform and the blood pressure waveform.
 41. The system of claim 40, wherein determining that the rate of chest compressions administered in the chest compression treatment should be changed comprises identifying a change of the portion of at least one of the blood flow waveform and the blood pressure waveform.
 42. The system of claim 40, wherein at least one of the blood flow waveform and the blood pressure waveform corresponds to at least one of: an inferior vena cava, a carotid artery, a jugular vein, a brachial artery, a femoral artery, and an abdominal aorta.
 43. The system of claim 37, wherein the rate of chest compressions is gradually changed during a plurality of time intervals based on an amount of time elapsed since chest compressions are commenced.
 44. The system of claim 43, wherein the amount of time elapsed is between 5 minutes and 30 minutes.
 45. The system of claim 37, comprising a motion sensor configured to measure rate of chest compressions exerted on the patient.
 46. The system of claim 37, wherein the mechanical chest compression device comprises a belt driven or piston based chest compression device.
 47. The system of claim 37, wherein the one or more processors are configured for performing parameter pre-processing substantially in real time.
 48. The system of claim 47, wherein the parameter pre-processing comprises at least one of: removing the DC component with a high-pass filter, amplifying the at least one blood flow parameter; applying a low-pass filter to the at least one blood flow parameter in a manner that limits the signal bandwidth; or digitally sampling the at least one blood flow parameter.
 49. The system of claim 37, wherein the mechanical chest compression device is configured to actively compress and actively decompress the chest of the patient.
 50. The system of claim 37, wherein the mechanical chest compression device is configured to permit passive decompression of the chest of the patient at a first compression rate and depth of a variable resuscitation protocol.
 51. The system of claim 37, comprising a timer module configured to determine an amount of time elapsed since chest compressions are commenced.
 52. The system of claim 51, wherein the one or more processors are configured for: determining, based on the amount of time elapsed, whether a rate of chest compressions administered in the chest compression treatment should be changed, and providing a second rate of chest compressions based on the time elapsed.
 53. The system of claim 51, wherein the timer module is a component of a monitoring device.
 54. The system of claim 53, wherein the monitoring device comprises at least one of: the mechanical chest compression device; a smartphone; a smart watch; a personal digital assistant (PDA); a laptop; a tablet personal computer (PC); a desktop PC; a set-top box; or an interactive television.
 55. The system of claim 37, wherein the sensor comprises at least one of: a tonometer, a laser Doppler blood flow sensor, an ultrasound Doppler blood flow sensor, or a blood pressure sensor.
 56. The system of claim 37, wherein the determination of whether the rate of chest compressions administered in the chest compression treatment should be changed is based at least in part on whether the received blood flow parameter is indicative that the blood flow from the administered chest compressions has decreased.
 57. The system of claim 37, wherein the second compression rate is slower than the first compression rate. 